![]() Patient-derived tumor organoids: new progress and opportunities to facilitate precision cancer immunotherapy. Towards precision oncology with patient-derived xenografts. Modeling human tumor-immune environments in vivo for the preclinical assessment of immunotherapies. Novel mouse models for cancer immunology. Dual relationship between stromal cells and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. A physical wiring diagram for the human immune system. Humanized mouse xenograft models: narrowing the tumor-microenvironment gap. We highlight the latest advances in the generation of humanized mouse models, with the aim of providing a guide for their application to immuno-oncology studies with potential for clinical translation. In this Review, we discuss the benefits and challenges of the currently available humanized mice, including specific interactions between engrafted human tumours and immune components, the development and survival of human innate immune populations in these mice, and approaches to study mice engrafted with matched patient tumours and immune cells. Humanized mice, a term that refers to immunodeficient mice co-engrafted with human tumours and immune components, provide several advantages for immuno-oncology research. ![]() Currently, the number of preclinical models that faithfully recapitulate interactions between the human immune system and tumours and enable evaluation of human-specific immunotherapies in vivo is limited. ![]() Although immunotherapeutic agents have demonstrated clinical efficacy, they are associated with variable clinical responses, and substantial gaps remain in our understanding of their mechanisms of action and specific biomarkers of response. Immunotherapy has emerged as a promising treatment paradigm for many malignancies and is transforming the drug development landscape.
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